HIV殺菌剤：研究の優先事項と成果の再考

課題

工学分野は、国内外の努力にもかかわらず、女性の存在感が薄い分野である。女性の参加を増やす計画は数多く存在するが、研究テーマ、資金調達の決定、プロジェクトの目的が、女性と男性の研究への参加割合にどのような影響を与えるかを検討した例は少ない。

方法：研究の優先事項と成果の再考

このケーススタディでは、ある機械工学の研究室で研究の優先事項を変更したことで、研究室で働く女性の数がどのように増加したかを分析している。応用物理学者のAndrew Szerの研究室では、女性が自己管理できるHIV殺菌剤について、ジェルの流体力学に焦点を当てた研究が行われるようになった結果、女性たちが研究室に集まるようになった。工学分野への女性の参加を増やすには、創造的かつ前向きに性差分析を含めるような、新しい意味付けをする必要がある。

ジェンダード・イノベーション：

1. ある機械工学の研究室で女性研究者の数が目立って増加したのは、人の健康を直接的に改善する可能性のあるプロジェクトを優先するようにしたことによる。また、この変化により、流体力学の分野における研究が発展した。

2. 性が自己管理できるHIV予防策の開発には、性交を拒否できなかったり、パートナーにコンドームの使用を要求したりできない文化圏の女性を支援する目的がある。この新しい技術は、HIVの蔓延を防ぐのに役立つ革新的な技術である。

3. 性行為が文化によってどのように異なるかを理解することで、HIV予防策の開発方針が明確化される。このような技術開発は、サハラ以南の女性や男性と性交する男性の助けとなる。

The Challenge

Over the last several decades, the European Union and U.S. have invested in increasing the number of women scientists and engineers (Marchetti et al., 2010; Rosser, 2008). Nonetheless, women's participation remains low in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This suggests that increasing the number of women requires more than programs focused on removing subtle gender bias from hiring and promotion practices, stopping tenure clocks, leadership training, and the like; such interventions are necessary but not sufficient. Increasing the numbers of women may also require "changing the knowledge" or reconceptualizing research to include methods of sex and gender analysis in creative and forward-looking ways.

Gendered Innovation 1: Increasing Women's Participation in Engineering by Changing Research Priorities

Andrew Szeri, Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Dean of the Graduate Division at the University of California, Berkeley, increased the number of women in his mechanical engineering lab by shifting the research focus of his lab. Over the past decade, he switched his research topics from those focusing on applied physics to biomedical engineering and, in the process, his lab changed from a majority of men to a majority of women (see Method). As Szeri explains, "the mathematical methods (on which I rely heavily) haven't changed much at all. It is, rather, the goals of the projects which have. The goals of the research changed from understanding the physics of a problem to developing models that could be used to evaluate devices or treatments for medical conditions" (Szeri, 2009).

Analyzing Academic Disciplines

Science and engineering disciplines were established at a time when universities excluded women and the values ascribed to women (Schiebinger, 1989). Difference feminism holds that women are inherently more caring than men, and that "feminine" values may drive progressive change in science and engineering. Empirical evidence shows, however, that genders are multiple and fluid and cautions against essentializing gender in this way: Femininities and masculinities vary with time and place. Stereotyping women and men contributes to bias, even if the stereotypes are ostensibly positive ("women are nurturing", etc.). Accordingly, we should not expect a simplistic relationship between the participation of women in science and type of research pursued. The increased participation of women in science and engineering since the 1970s has been accompanied by changes in research priorities and disciplinary organization. More research is needed to understand the relevant interactions, but the following patterns have been observed:

• The representation of women and men engineers differs by subfield. Biomedical, environmental, and agricultural engineering fields have the greatest proportions of women, while mechanical and electrical engineering have the greatest proportions of men—see charts for the EU and U.S. (NSF, 2011; EU-EGGE, 2009; Gibbons, 2009; PROMETEA, 2006). For the representation of women and men in science subfields and medical specialties, see disparities.

• In recent years, universities have become increasingly interdisciplinary. Women appear to be in the forefront of this development in so much as women hold appointments across traditional departments and fields more often than men. For example, among STEM faculty at the University of California, Berkeley, 26% of women professors hold joint appointments (or appointments in two separate departments or institutes) in comparison to 15% of men professors (National Academies, 2006). Available evidence shows that this pattern holds across the U.S. and Europe (Castaño et al., 2010; Rhoten et al., 2007; Beraud, 2003). We cannot know whether the influx of women into interdisciplinary fields is due to career choices or limited options in "traditional" fields.

• Studies show that many girls and young women are dissuaded from pursuing engineering careers because both the image of engineers and the traditional offering of engineering education focus narrowly on mathematics and science—especially in cultures that heavily mark the technical as "masculine" and the social as "feminine" (Faulkner, 2000). This is at odds with the actual practice of engineering work, which demands social skills, such as teamwork and communication, as well as technical ones. There is a strong argument that more women (and arguably other men) would be attracted to engineering if engineering images and education foregrounded the social aspects of engineering alongside the technical (National Academy of Engineering, 2008; Sagebiel et al., 2008; Faulkner, 2007).

Gendered Innovation 2: Woman-Controlled HIV Prevention

Although the fluid mechanics research conducted in Szeri's lab has many applications, Szeri was particularly interested in contributing to the development of woman-controlled HIV microbicides.

About 33 million people are infected with HIV worldwide; some 68% of HIV infections and 72% of HIV-related deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa, where the prevalence of HIV infection is about 6 times higher than the world average. Young women aged 15-24 in sub-Saharan Africa have particularly high HIV prevalence—about 8 times higher than age-matched men. HIV flourishes in regions where women's subordinate status makes it difficult to negotiate safe sex (Gilbert et al., 2010; Murray, 2008; UNAIDS, 2010). Currently, female condoms are the only woman-controlled HIV prevention option, but they are detectable and consequently require partner consent. They are also less available and more expensive than male condoms (Mack et al., 2010)—see Method.

Method: Formulating Research Questions

The greatest potential for creative innovation lies in asking new questions. Taking sex and gender into account, or examining assumptions about sex and gender, can prompt researchers to "see" new problems that open new questions. In turn, this can serve to bring to the fore areas of research that have been neglected and to open up new opportunities for development (Nieuwenhoven et al., 2010). In this case, an understanding of the reasons behind the high HIV incidence in some women led Szeri and his team to formulate research questions geared toward developing a woman-specific technology—a vaginal gel designed to deliver an HIV microbicide.

View General Method

 

Szeri and his co-workers were interested in developing woman-controlled HIV microbicides in the hope of assisting women, especially in cultures where they cannot say "no" to sex or cannot rely on their partners to use condoms (Szeri, 2009). A large number of microbicides are under development; many are designed to prevent transmission of other infections in addition to HIV, and some are also intended to function as contraceptives (Harrison, 2003).

Szeri's lab is studying the transluminal flow of gels where the effectiveness of the microbicide depends on the completeness and durability of the vaginal coating. These properties depend on the physical characteristics (such as viscosity) of the gel carrying the microbicide (Szeri et al., 2008). Szeri's group seeks to create gels with desirable physical properties.

Currently, no HIV microbicides are commercially available. Clinical trials of several microbicide formulations have shown limited efficacy and, in some cases, raised safety concerns (McCormack et al., 2010; McCoy et al., 2010).

Gendered Innovation 3: Analyzing Factors Intersecting with Gender to Improve Microbicides

While the potential benefits of woman-controlled methods of HIV prevention are clear, it does not follow that this technology will be appropriate for all women or inappropriate for all men. The diverse nature of gender suggests otherwise. In particular, addressing the diversity of sexual practices and HIV epidemiology is opening up new questions and new avenues for development (see Method).

Method: Intersectional Approaches

Engineers can improve products by systematically analyzing other social factors, such as geographic locations, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, etc., that intersect with biological sex and socio-cultural gender relations. Most engineering work related to HIV microbicides takes place in developed countries, but the possible future users of such products are largely in developing countries (Ramjee et al., 2000).

View General Method

 

Analyzing social factors that intersex with gender has revealed the following:

1. Sexual Practices Differ Cross-Culturally. Studies are needed to investigate the acceptability of microbicidal gels in different cultural contexts (Moon et al., 2002). Gels can deliver microbicides and contraceptives, but also act as lubricants. In some areas of sub-Saharan Africa, dry sex practices—in which the vagina is dried through the use of herbs and traditional medicines—are prevalent. For example, a study of 812 women living in the Zambian capital city Lusaka showed that about 65% of women had used dry sex traditional medicines in their lifetimes, with about 50% reporting current use (Mbikusita-Lewanika et al., 2010). These practices correlate with low socioeconomic status and low education, and are most common among women whose partners prefer dry sex (Reddy et al., 2009). These drying practices can augment the risk of HIV transmission because of increased risk of tearing during sex (Feinstein et al., 2001; Gilbert et al., 2010). Interdisciplinary collaborations are needed to explore the intersection of cultural practices and biophysical functions for HIV prevention.

2. HIV Epidemiology Differs Internationally.



HIV infection rates vary internationally. A recent Center for Disease Control report on HIV incidence in the U.S., for example, shows that the rate of new infections for Black women is 14.7 times that for white women; Black men are also disproportionately affected.

Moreover, in the U.S., about 57% of HIV infections result from sex between men, even though men who have sex with men (MSM) constitute only about 2% of the U.S. population (CDC, 2009a). HIV microbicides are also being tested in the rectum, which would create a barrier method for MSM—one that does not require partner consent or knowledge (Harrison et al., 2003).

Conclusions

Research priorities determine more than what will be studied and what products will be designed—they have a profound effect on who will perform research. In the case of HIV microbicides, research priorities related to improving women's and men's health increased the representation of women in Szeri's lab. These women had already chosen engineering careers, but it is possible that changing research priorities in engineering as a whole could increase the representation of women in the field overall.

Next Steps

Future research might investigate how shifts in research priorities relate to workforce participation, and vice versa.

1. What data are available to answer such questions?

2. What implications might this line of enquiry hold for future research funding?