ビデオゲーム：エンジニアリングのイノベーション・プロセス

課題

ビデオゲームは21世紀最大のメディアの一つであり、米国のゲーム市場の収益は2018年430億ドル（1ドル=130円として約5兆5900億円）を超えた。ビデオゲームは、情報、社会的交流、娯楽、個人のアイデンティティーの探求などにおいて重要な役割を担っている。多くのゲームキャラクターは、ジェンダー、人種、クィアなどのステレオタイプを象徴している。インタラクティブで説得力のあるストーリーにプレイヤーを没頭させるゲームは、社会的な価値観や規範、個人の行動の形成に影響を及ぼすため、偏見や差別につながるステレオタイプは懸念材料となる。

方法：言語と視覚表現の再考

ゲームの仮想空間では、デザイナーとプレイヤーの双方が、民族、ジェンダー、性自認などが異なる別人になってみることができる。仮想空間は、現実の世界では実現が難しい、あるいは不可能と思われるようなことが可能になる。ステレオタイプに異議を唱えたり覆したりすることは、現実世界でのアイデンティティーや行動を変化させることにつながり、プレイヤーやゲーム開発者の多様性を高める可能性がある。

ジェンダード・イノベーション：

1. ゲームは社会変革のきっかけとなり得る：社会規範やステレオタイプに異議を唱えることで、ビデオゲームやオンラインゲームの多様化が進み、ゲーム業界自体の多様性が高まる可能性がある。ゲームはあらゆる世代の人々が交流する空間であるため、この影響は大きい。
2. 開発者は多様なキャラクターやアバターを作成することができる：ゲームに多様なキャラクターやアバターの選択肢を用意することで、包摂性を高めることができる。女性、LGBTQIA+、非白人のキャラクターも増えてきており、多数派の白人男性キャラクターと同等の物語性を持つようになりつつある。

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The Challenge
Gendered Innovation 1: Games as a Catalyst for Changing Gender Norms
Method: Rethinking Language and Visual Representations
Designing Games for Girls: The Problem of Stereotypes
Term: Stereotypes
Gendered Innovation 2: Designing Flexible, Mixed-Gender Games
Method: Engineering Innovation Processes
Video Games and Women’s Participation in the Information Technology (IT) Industry
Conclusions
Next Steps

The Challenge

In 1962, MIT student Steve Russell created Spacewar!, the first widely-distributed software video game (Rockwell, 2002). Until games were commercialized in 1971, developers and players were largely computer scientists, electrical engineers, and their students, who tended to be white males (Herman et al., 2002). Fifty years later, we still lack equity among game characters, gamers, and developers.

Gendered Innovation 1: Games as a Catalyst for Changing Social Norms

Video games are one of the largest media outlets in the 21st century, serving as a source of information, social interaction, entertainment, and exploration of personal identity (Westcott et al., 2021).

Games—and the cultures that form around them—often reflect and influence players’ behaviors in the real world. For example, controlled experiments show that violent game play, such as Mortal Kombat, increases the incidence of self-reported aggressive thoughts in the short term (Anderson et al., 2007). Similarly, research demonstrates that players exposed to stereotypical sex-typed images from video games (e.g., female sex objects and powerful males) are more tolerant of sexual harassment (Dill et al., 2008). Researchers also found that players exposed to stereotypes of Black men as aggressive criminals or a “dangerous minority” rate Black political candidates less favorably than white candidates (Dill & Burgess, 2013). Finally, games that are consistently heteronormative erase LGBTQIA+ identities. By contrast, games where the goal is “to benefit another game character” have been shown to enhance gamers’ prosocial action, or voluntary actions intended to help others (Greitemeyer et al., 2010).

This power of games to influence social behavior can potentially help catalyze social change (Stefansdóttir et al., 2008). Game researchers have found that games embed “beliefs within their representation systems and structures, whether the designers intend them or not” (Flanagan et al., 2007). In this sense, games can either reproduce social stereotypes or challenge them—in ways that lead players to rethink social norms (see diagram right). Analyzing gender, race, sexuality, and their intersections has led to the designing of games which provide a virtual space where players can explore social identities and behaviors. Games that challenge conventional stereotypes allow players to create multiple personas in a range of contexts over time.

Gendered Innovation 2: Designing Diverse Characters and Avatars

Gender, racial, and queer stereotypes are rife in games. Stereotypes have both cognitive (e.g., generalizations) and affective (e.g., fear) components (Amodio & Devine, 2006), and repeated exposure to stereotypical portrayals of a group reinforces how that group is viewed socially (Burgess, 2011).

Since the 1970s, mainstream games have prioritized themes of technomasculinity, violence, and competition. Until the mid 1980s, games included few female characters. When females began to appear, they tended to be hypersexualized or portrayed as damsels in distress. Female characters in the Mortal Kombat game (right), for example, are dressed in highly sexualized clothing featuring unrealistically large breasts and cinched waists (Cunningham, 2018; Vysotsky & Allaway, 2018). Or, in the Super Mario Brothers series, Princess Peach appears helpless and in need of rescue by the Mario brothers.

A 2020 study of game characters and players on Twitch, Amazon’s popular live-streaming global platform, found that among the 27,564 characters studied, males (79%) vastly outnumber females (20.1%). This in spite of the fact that across all platforms boys and men constitute only 54% of players (Geena Davis Institute, 2021).

The Twitch study focused on the portrayals of male characters. It found that 70.5% of male characters were shown in stereotypically masculine activities, with violence topping the list. Interestingly, in the set of games studied, white male characters perpetrated violence at a higher rate (55.4%) than male characters of color (30.9%). Further, white male characters were twice as likely both to carry a weapon as male characters of color and to kill at least one human (Geena Davis Institute, 2021). The concern is that the more hours gamers play, the more they tend to endorse the stereotypes embedded in the games (Blackburn & Scharrer, 2019).

LGBTQIA+ characters do not fare much better. Out of the tens of thousands of games released in the past 70 years, by 2018 only 179 featured LGBTQIA+ characters (Greer, 2018). These queer characters are often cast as villains or are simply non-playable characters that blend into the background. Many games were also harmful: a 2019 survey of 163 video games released between 1985 and 2005 revealed that out of 283 LGBTQIA+ references, 29 were homophobic or transphobic (Shaw et al., 2019).

Often overlooked but equally harmful is the lack of in-game LGBTQIA+ communities. A study of 204 games found that most queer people figured as single characters amid a variety of heterosexual cisgender characters. These games rarely portrayed LGBTQIA+ relationships (Shaw et al., 2019). This failing is highlighted in the 2014 life-simulation game Tomodachi Life released by Nintendo. The game was criticized for not allowing characters to form same-sex relationships. When a bug made this temporarily possible, the creators “fixed” it immediately. In the words of the creators, they “never intended to make any form of social commentary with the launch of the game” (Kang & Yang, 2018).

Gender disparities are rife in games representing LGBTQIA+ characters. Gay men, for example, accounted for 56.6% of all LGBTQIA+ characters identified in a 2019 survey, whereas lesbian and bisexual characters comprise only 22% and 20.7% respectively. Racial representation was also a problem. White gay men in these games outnumbered gay men of color two to one. This misrepresents the racial makeup of the queer community and renders LGBTQIA+ people of color invisible (Shaw et al., 2019).

A “virtual census” published in 2009 analyzing 150 games across 9 platforms found that 80% of video game characters were white, as compared with 11% Black character, 3% Hispanic characters, 1% biracial characters, .09% Native America, and 5% Asian/Pacific Islander (Williams et al., 2009). The 2020 Twitch study found that 75% of characters were white compared to 25% characters of color. When present, characters of color are frequently stereotyped (Geena Davis Institute, 2021), leaving players of color poorly represented (Malkowsk & Russworm, 2017). Passmore & Mandryk (2018) found that players seek to self-represent in games. When building avatars for play, gamers sought digital representation for a diverse set of skin tones, hair textures and styles, facial physiognomy, body shape, and personalities. Providing a wider range character characteristics can drive inclusivity.

Method: Rethinking Language and Visual Representations

Games provide a virtual space where designers and players can experiment with ethnicity, gender and sexuality-experimentation that may be difficult or impossible in the real world (Turkle, 1997; Przybylski et al., 2021). A cross-sectional study of gamers found that—when given choices—54% of men and 68% of women engaged in “gender-swapping”; these players felt more freedom to experiment in game play than in real life (Hussain et al., 2008). Players might also engage with gender-ambiguous characters and play with other characteristics, such as race, age, height, etc. (Conrad et al., 2010; Harris et al., 2009). Challenging stereotypes has the potential to help remake real-world identities and behaviors, and may enhance diversity among players and game developers.

Challenging gender stereotypes may enhance diversity in video and online games, and potentially the gaming industry. This is important because games are increasingly spaces where young people engage in a significant portion of their socializing.
View General Method

Games that feature pre-chosen characters need female, LGBTQIA+, and BIPOC characters that enjoy narrative parity with their majority male counterparts (Vella et al., 2020). For example, Dragon Age: Inquisition works to positively mainstream LGBTQIA+ characters (Villemez, 2020). In the game, Dorian, a powerful gay wizard, assists the main character in saving the fictional world of Thedas from a demon army. When he was younger, Dorian was forced by his father to undergo conversion therapy (through a process called “blood magic”). As in real life, this torture did not change Dorian’s sexuality.

Importantly, Dorian’s sexuality is presented as only a part of his identity; he is first and foremost a fighter. Dorian’s character resides within the larger environment of Thedas, where straight, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender characters of various races coexist. As in the real world, these characters engage in a range of sexual and romantic experiences. The game creators avoided harmful stereotypes and, importantly, educated players about LGBTQIA+ issues (Hagan, 2017).

The presence of LGBTQIA+ characters is beginning to increase in games. But this representation is uneven (chart below). Frequency of video game characters of different sexualities across 162 games released between 1985 and 2005. While LGBTQIA+ representation increased overall, lesbian representation saw a downward trend after the 2000s. The authors note that the unavailability of post-2005 data makes it impossible to judge whether this is an anomaly.

Games that feature avatars can allow players to create their own from a wide range of customizable options for men, women, and non-binary individuals from different ethnic and racial backgrounds and sexual orientations. For example, in Sims 4, avatars are customizable across sex and physiology, allowing players to choose from a variety of voices, character traits, outfits, accessories, and cosmetics (Wood & Szymanski, 2020). Players can gender-swap their avatars; designated male avatars can have traditionally female accessories and characteristics, including the potential to become pregnant (right). Designated female Sims can feature traditionally male characteristics and accessories.

Method: Engineering Innovation Processes

Considering the following points may lead to games designed with dynamic gender norms:

1. In designing for “everybody,” game developers often design by default for white, heterosexual boys and men (Süngü, 2020; Sørensen et al., 2012; Rommes, 2006; Oudshoorn et al., 2004). Designing for “everybody” typically continues to exclude LGBTQIA+ gamers, gamers of color, non-binary people, and women.

2. “I-Methodology"—where designers assume that users will like the same things they do—may also result in games for men. A 2021 survey of the gaming industry revealed that 61% of developers identify as men and 68% identify as heterosexual (IGDA, 2021). Further increasing diversity in the game industry will likely augment the number of well-represented characters of diverse backgrounds and identities (Smith, 2016).

3. User input from diverse players can be important (see Co-Creation and Participatory Research and Design.

a. Surveying users may produce inaccurate data due to reporting bias: People surveyed tend to report behaviors that conform to stereotypes. As a result, self-reports may generate inaccurate data that appear to support stereotypes.

b. Objective measures of players’ play behaviors may lead to better design. This will help developers create game content that appeals to diverse audiences, as well as account for players that have different gaming behaviors (Veltri et al. 2014). For example, girls are more likely to play video games associated with cards, puzzles, and social interaction, while boys are more likely to play video games associated with fighting, shooting, sports, and fantasy role-play. Sandbox and simulation games appeal across genders (Cunningham, 2018).

c. Testing prototypes through questionnaires or direct feedback with intersectional gamers (e.g., queer Black people or Asian women) may enhance character development.

4. Intersectional approaches take into accountconsider group differences. Gamers are not all the same, and analyzing group heterogeneity may better capture the diversity of interests and tastes across broad populations. Not all women, for example, like the same games. Gaming is influenced by gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, and their interactions. Age, educational level, geographic location (urban vs. rural and other factors also influence game preferences.

5. Building a diverse design team may broaden perspectives.

a. Including people from diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds, genders, and sexual orientations enhances creativity and innovation (Danilda et al., 2011; IGDA, 2022).

b. Simply including a wide range of developers, however, may not be enough. To maximize innovation, everyone on the design team needs to understand intersectional analysis. Teams should workshop narratives that encourage empathy and inclusivity while avoiding stereotypes (Gray, 2021).

View General Method

Game Developers

Gamers are often harassed. Women (38%) and LGBTQIA+ (35%) players reported the most online harassment, followed by Black (31%), Hispanic and Latinx (24%), and Asian (23%) players (Fiorellini, 2021). Gamers who feel harassed often find their own niche communities. The r/Gaymer and r/TransGamers forums on the social media site Reddit seek to provide spaces for LGBTQIA+ gamers to express their experiences (Fiorellini, 2021). Black Girl Gamers, a channel on Twitch, increases the visibility of Black women gamers. Increasing diversity among game developers coupled with increasing character diversity in video games may produce games and gaming communities that are inclusive and welcoming. These inclusive communities can work to “encourag[e] an equitable gaming environment…where marginalized players can become part of the center” (Skardzius, 2018).

Gender and sexual diversity among game developers has increased over the past five years. The International Game Developers Association (IGDA)’s Developer Satisfaction Survey 2021 reports that 61% of respondents identified as men, down from and 75% in 2015. Almost one-third identified as women (30%), compared to 22% in 2015. Self-identified gender non-binary, gender fluid, genderqueer, or two-spirited comprised 8%, compared to only 1% “other” in 2015. In a separate question, the 2021 survey found that 7% of respondents identified as transgender. Other respondents identified their sexuality as straight (68%), gay or lesbian (6%), bisexual, pansexual or demisexual (21%), asexual (3%), and queer (2%) (IGDA, 2021).

While significant changes occurred in the gender makeup of developers, the 2021 race/ethnicity snapshot largely mirrored that of 2015. In 2021, 75% of survey respondents identified as White/Caucasian/European, 9% as Hispanic or Latino/Latina/Latinx, 7% as East Asian, 4% as Black/African American/African/Afro-Caribbean, and 4% as Aboriginal/Indigenous. In 2015 the figures were: 76% White/Caucasian/European, 7.3% Hispanic/Latino, 9% East Asian, 3% Black/African American/African/Afro-Caribbean, with Aboriginal/Indigenous not reported (IGDA, 2021; IGDA, 2015).

Further, the 2021 survey found that 29% of respondents identified as having one or more disabilities (IGDA, 2021). In 2015, 22% of respondents identified as having a disability (IGDA, 2015).

Demographics of game developers and players might be collected in an intersectional fashion. For example, how many gay developers are Asian? How many women developers are Black? This is difficult. IGDA itself reports 18 diversity categories. As in any research design, researchers need to be strategic to report statistics that, in this case, most impact game play.

Importantly, the IGDA has taken on the issue of inclusive design with their 2022 Inclusive Game Design and Development report, which advocates for inclusive design teams as well as diverse game content. The report moves step-by-step through the design process to advocate for sensitive inclusivity. “Any cultural references, inclusions or inspirations,” they state, “should be reviewed by an expert” to ensure that they are handled in a respectful fashion. If an expert is not already present on the team, a contracted consultant might be engaged.

While more remains to be done, this awareness of the relationship between team demographics, character and world building, and the needs of a wide range of players is a first step.

Conclusions

Design can promote social equity. Games, in particular, can be a catalyst for change in social norms, relations, and identities, and, eventually, in the gaming industry itself. Although current social identities and norms determine in part the kinds of games that are produced, culture itself is dynamic, and games can be used as an experimental space for creating new norms, relations, and identities.

Next Steps

• 1. Empirical data are required to understand differences and similarities in gaming behaviors, skills, and preferences across heterogeneous groups of players. Studies should include information about players' ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, educational background, play experience, income level, regional location, and age to allow for intersectional analysis.
• 2. Developers might develop strategies to enhance flexibility in games, allowing games to become experimental spaces for changing social norms.